IJBED 2051-848X 2051-8498 https://doi.org/10.24052/IJBED/ 6 Volume 02 Issue 3 2014-11-01 https://ijbed.org/cdn/issue_file/Volume%202_Number%203.pdf

59 https://ijbed.org/details&cid=59 2014-12-22 The purpose of the current research is to investigate the direct and indirect influence of country personality dimensions on consumer behavioral intentions to visit a specific country, considering affective country image as a mediator. A quota sample of 685 valid respondents from Brazil was analyzed. Portugal was chosen as the stimulus country and the questionnaire was delivered in Portuguese for Brazilians. AMOS 20.0 was employed to examine the proposed model. The predictors of behavioral intentions to visit explain around 67% of its variance. Affective country image is seen a perfect/full mediator between country personality and behavioral intentions to visit. Thus, country personality dimensions have a positive indirect effect on behavioral intentions to visit. Assiduousness and agreeableness show a positive significant influence on affective country image, whereas snobbism shows a significant negative influence. International business marketers should focus on developing marketing strategies emphasizing the distinctive personality of their country destinations. However it is important to keep in mind the higher importance of the emotional components of the country image. Baron, R. M. & Kenny, D. A., 1986. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations.. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), pp. 1173-1182. Boulding, K. E., 1956. The image: Knowlegde in life and society. MI - Michigan: University of Michigan Press. Boulding, K. E., 1988. The image: Knowledge in life and society. This week's citation classic, 28 november, p. 20. Brijs, K., 2006. Unraveling country-of-origin: simiotics as a theoretical basis for meaning-centered approach towards country-of-origin effects.. Nijmegen: Radboud Universiteit. Bryman, A. & Cramer, D., 2009. Quantitative Data Analysis with SPSS 14, 15 & 16. A guide for social scientists. New York: Routledge. Burcio, C., Da Silva, R. V. & Salgueiro, F., 2014. The impact of country personality on behavioral intentions: Five dimensions rather than the original six. Vienna, Austria, WEI, p. 15. Canally, C. R., 2010. An exploration of American and canadian tourist destination images of Cuba. s.l.:Wilfrid Laurier University. Chao, P. & Rajendran, K. N., 1993. Consumer profiles and perceptions: Country-of-origin effects. International Marketing Review, Volume 10, pp. 22-39. d' Astous, A. & Boujbel, L., 2007. Positioning countries on personality dimensions: Scale development and implications for country marketing. Journal of Business Research, Volume 60, pp. 231-239. d' Astous, A. & Boujbel, L., 2007. Positioning countries on personality dimensions: Scale development and implications for country marketing.. Journal of Business Research, Volume 60, pp. 231-239. Davies, G., Chun, R., Da Silva, R. V. & Roper, S., 2001. The personification metaphor as a measurement approach for corporate reputation.. Corporate Reputation Review, Volume 4, pp. 113-127. Ekinci, Y. & Hosany, S., 2006. Destination personality: An application of brand personality to tourism destinations. Journal of Travel research, Volume 45, pp. 127-139. Ernst & Young, 2011. FDI in Europe: Europe's True Market Value., s.l.: s.n. Fournier, S., 1998. Consumers and their brands: Developing relationship theory in consumer reserach.. Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 24, pp. 343-373. Gartner, W. C., 1993. Image formation process.. Journal of Travel & Tourism marketing, Volume 2, pp. 191-215. Geuens, M., Weijters, B. & De Wulf, K., 2009. A new measure of brand personality. International Journal of Research in Marketing, Volume 26, pp. 97-107. Goldberg, L. R., 1990. An alternative 'description of personality': The big-five factor structure.. J Pers Soc Psychol, Volume 56, pp. 1216-1229. Hair, J. J. F. et al., 2005. Multivariate Data Analysis. 6th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Heslop, L. A., Lu, I. & Cray, D., 2008. Modeling country image effects through an international crisis. International Marketing Review, Volume 25, pp. 354-378. Hu, L. T. & Bentler, P. M., 1999. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, Volume 6, pp. 1-55. IBGE, 2013. IBGE - Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. [Online] Available at:  http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/estimativa2013/estimativa_tcu.shtm [Accessed 07 06 2014]. Jaffe, E. D. & Nebenzahl, I. D., 2006. National image and competitive advantage.. Copenhagen Business Schoool Press. Kester, J. G. C., 2014. International Tourism Results and Prospects for 2014. Madrid, UNWTO, pp. 1-14. Kiesler, T., 2006. Anthropomorphism and consumer behavior.. Advances in Consumer Research, Volume 33, p. 149. Knight, G. A. & Calantone, R. J., 2000. A flexible model of consumer country-of-origin perceptions. International Marketing review, 17(2), pp. 127-145. Lee, J. & Lijia, X. I., 2012. Cognitive destination image, destination personality and behavioral intentions: An integrated perspective of destination branding.. s.l.:s.n. Maher, A. a. & Carter, L. L., 2011. The affective and cognitive components of country image: Perceptions of American products in Kuwait.. International Marketing Review, 28(6), pp. 559-580. McCrae, R. R. & Costa, P. T., 1996. Toward a new generation of personality theories: Theoretical contexts of the five-factor model.. In: J. S. Wiggins, ed. The Five-Factor Model of Personality: Theoretical Perspectives. New York: Guilford, pp. 51-87. Nebenzahl, I. D., Jaffe, E. D. & Usunier, J. C., 2003. Personifying country of origin research.. Management International Review, Volume 43, pp. 383-406. Nebenzahl, I. D., Jaffe, E. D. & Usunier, J. C., 2003. Personifying country of origin research.. Management International Review, Volume 43, pp. 383-406. Nunnally, J. C. & Bernstein, I. H., 1994. Psychometric theory. 3rd ed. ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Orbaiz, L. V. & Papadopoulos, N., 2003. Toward a model of consumer receptivity of foreign and domestic products.. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 15(3), pp. 101-126. Papadopoulos, N. & Heslop, L. A., 1993. Product country images: Impact and their role in international marketing.. In: Product Country Images. New York: The Haworth Press, pp. 159-178. PLC, 2013. Observatório da Língua Portuguesa (Portuguese Language Center). [Online] Available at:  http://observatorio-lp.sapo.pt/pt/dados-estatisticos/projecao-e-uso/portugues-negocios [Accessed 11 November 2013]. Roth, K. & Diamantopoulos, A., 2008. The preditive validity of alternative country personality measures: An empirical investigation. Brighton, EMAC. Roth, K. P. & Diamantopoulos, A., 2009. Advancing th country image construct.. Journal of Business Research, Volume 62, pp. 726-740. Sirgy, M. J., 1982. Self-concept in consumer behavior: A critical review. Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 9, pp. 287-300. Soderlund, M. & Ohman, N., 2003. Behavioral intentions in satisfaction research revisited.. Journal of Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior, pp. 53-66. Um, S. & Crompton, J. L., 1990. Attitude determinants in tourism destination choice. Annals of Tourism Research, Volume 17, pp. 432-448. Usakli, A., 2009. The relationship between destination personality, sel-congruity, and behavioral intentions. Las Vegas: UNLV - University Libraries. Velten, E. J., 1968. A laboratorytask for induction of mood states. Behavior Research & Therapy, Volume 6, pp. 473-482. Verlegh, P. W. J., Benedict, J. & Steenkamp, E. M., 1999. A review and meta-analysis of country-of-origin research.. Journal of Economic Phycology, Volume 20, pp. 521-546. Wang, C.-y. & Hsu, M. K., 2010. The relationships of destination image, satisfation, and behavioral intentions: An integrated model. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, Volume 27, pp. 829-843. https://ijbed.org/cdn/article_file/i-6_c-59.pdf Burcio Carlos Rui Da Silva Fatima Salgueiro Country personality affective country image behavioral intentions behavioral intentions to visit Portugal Brazil 5009 2 0

60 https://ijbed.org/details&cid=60 2014-12-22 The objective of the study is to investigate the relationship between firm size and stock returns for firms listed on the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange (ZSE) between June 2009 and July 2013. We adopt the regression model employed by Banz in 1981, with innovations. The regression is based on constructed portfolios, with market capitalization as the basis for portfolio construction. The portfolios comprise at most 5 stocks, and stocks are sorted in ascending order by market capitalization for selection into portfolios. The sample period spans from June 2009 to July 2013. We select the sample period beginning from 2009 because that is when the government of Zimbabwe demonetized the Zimbabwean dollar and adopted a basket of foreign currencies as legal tender. The data prior to 2009 is also distorted by hyperinflation and therefore is not reliable. The sample size covers 64 companies listed on the ZSE, of which 60 are industrial and 4 are mining companies. We find that the estimated coefficient for the firm size factor is not significant at the 5% level of significance. Therefore, firm size has a positive yet insignificant effect on stock returns for companies listed on the ZSE for the period June 2009 to July 2013. Contrary to the general empirical findings, larger firms on the ZSE tend to exhibit higher risk-adjusted returns than smaller firms. Michailidis G, Tsopoglou S, Papanastasiou D, Mariola E. Testing the capital asset pricing model (CAPM): The case of the emerging Greek securities market. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics. 2006; 4:78-91. Yang X, DonghuiX, Testing the CAPM model: A study of the Chinese stock market. Master Thesis. UMEA School of Business.2006. Javid AY, Ahmad E. Testing multifactor capital asset pricing model in case of Pakistani market. Retrieved From http://mpra.ub.uni-uenchen.de/37341/1/MPRA_paper_37341.pdf. 2006 Nikolaos L. An empirical evaluation of CAPM’s validity in the British stock exchange. International Journal of Applied Mathematics and Informatics. 2009; 3(1):1-8. Krish M. Validity of capital asset pricing model & stability of systematic risk (beta): An empirical study on Indian Stock Market. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1708463. 2010. Mazviona BW. Testing the capital asset pricing model after currency reform: The case of Zimbabwe Stock Exchange, South East Asia Journal of Contemporary Business, Economics and Law. 2013; 3(1):22-29. Grinblatt M, Titman S. Financial markets and corporate strategy. Boston. McGraw-Hill Irwin; 2002. Griffin JM, Lemmon ML. Book-to-market equity, distress risk, and stock returns.Journal of Finance. 2002; 57(5):2317-2336. Penman SH, Richardson SA, Tuna I. The book-to-price effect in stock returns: Accounting for leverage. Journal of Accounting Research. 2007; 45(2):427-467. Bali TG, Demirtas KO, Tehranian H. Aggregate earnings, firm-Level earnings, and expected stock returns. Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis. 2008; 43(3):657-684. Hou K, Robinson DT. Industry concentration and average stock returns. Journal of Finance. 2006; 61(4):1927-1956. Israel R, Moskowitz TJ. The role of shorting, firm size, and time on market anomalies. Journal of Financial Economics. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2012.11.005. 2013. Wu H. The value and size effect-Are there firm-specific-risks in China’s domestic stock markets? International Journal of Economics and Finance. 2011;3(3):26-37 Kumar M, Sehgal S. Company characteristics and common stock returns: The Indian experience. Investment Management and Financial Innovations. 2004; 4:89-99 https://ijbed.org/cdn/article_file/i-6_c-60.pdf Batsirai Winmore Mazviona Davis Nyangara Zimbabwe Stock Exchange firm size portfolio stock returns. 5556 11 0

61 https://ijbed.org/details&cid=61 2014-12-22 Employment and economic growth in rural areas as a policy issue has been recently highlighted by the federal government. In August 2011, the White House released a report entitled “Jobs and Economic Security for Rural America. While the document listed various programs and policies that have reportedly benefited rural America, it also stated that rural communities are still facing many challenges. For example, many rural communities have lower incomes and higher poverty rates than more urban areas. One possible reason for rural communities being at a disadvantage compared to urban areas involves transportation, especially in terms of journey to work. Thus, one can ask how employment rates vary with accessibility, as measured by journey to work times, as well as location (rural versus urban). Using 2007 state level data, OLS analysis is used to examine the relationship between employment rates and journey to work times and rurality. The analysis confirms that employment rates decrease with increased journey to work times. However, measures of rurality were only marginally significant and the negative coefficient on each measure indicates that employment rates decrease with greater urbanization. Improving accessibility between (very) rural and larger areas might improve employment opportunities. Although weighing the benefits of such (reduced unemployment) against the costs of providing better highways or public transit might lead to a different conclusion. Baum, Charles L. (2009) ‘The Effects of Vehicle Ownership on Employment, ‘Journal of Human Resources, vol. 66, no. 3,pp. 151–163. Ciccone, Antonio and Robert E. Hall. (1996) ‘Productivity and the Density of Economic Activity,’American Economic Review,vol. 86, no. 1,pp. 54-70. Glenn, Paul, IngeThorsen, and Jan Uboe. (2004) ‘Wage Payoffs and Distance Deterrence in the Journey to Work,’Transportation Research Part B,vol. 38, pp. 853-867. Goetz, Stephan J., Yicheol Han, Jill L. Findeis and Kathryn J. Brasier. (2010), ‘US Commuting Networks and Economic Growth: Measurement and Implications for Spatial Policy,’Growth and Change, vol.41, no. 2,pp. 276-302. Jelavich, Mark. (1995)‘Estimation of Structural Differences Between Rural North and South Missouri,’Transactions, Missouri Academy of Sciences, vol. 29, pp. 56-65. LeSage, James P. and R. Kelley Pace.(2008)‘Spatial Econometric Modelling of Origin-Destination Flows,’Journal of Regional Science, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 941-967. Partridge, M. and Rickman, D. (2006)The Geography of American Poverty, Kalamazoo: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. Partridge, Mark D., MD Kamar Ali, and M. Rose Olfert. (2010)‘Rural-to-Urban Commuting: Three Degrees of Integration,’Growth and Change, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 303-335. Partridge, Mark D., Dan S. Rickman, and Hui Li. (2009)‘Who Wins From Local Economic Development?,’Economic Development Quarterly,vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 13-27. Richardson, H. (1977)The New Urban Economics: And Alternatives.London: Pion. Shelton, Ellen, Greg Owen, Amy B. Stevens, Justin Nelson-Christinedaughter, Corrina Roy, and June Heineman. (2002)‘Whose Job is it: Employers’ Views on Welfare Reform,’ in Weber, B., Duncan, G., and Whitener L., (2002) Rural Dimensions of Welfare Reform, Kalamazoo:W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. Stimson, R., Stough, R., and Roberts, B. (2006) Regional Economic Development: Analysis and Planning Strategy, 2nd edition, New York: Springer. White House Rural Council. (2011) Jobs and Economic Security for Rural America, Washington, D.C.: White House. https://ijbed.org/cdn/article_file/i-6_c-61.pdf Casey Abington Mark Jelavich Accessibility employment journey to work labor rurality and transportation 5340 2 0

62 https://ijbed.org/details&cid=62 2014-12-22 This study explores the empirical link between different dimensions of organizational commitment and turnover intentions on Nigeria paramilitary organisation. A literature review of organizational commitment and employee turnover provides the basis for the research hypotheses. Four research hypotheses were formulated and tested at 95% and 99% confidence level. The study adopted a survey research design. A self-administered questionnaire was used, involving 144 respondents from selected paramilitary organisation in Akure, Nigeria to collect data and testing the existing theory. Data collected were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. In contrary to theory, the study revealed a weak positive relationship between organizational commitment dimensions (affective, continuance and normative) and turnover intentions. The relationships are statistically significant expect the one between turnover intention and normative commitment which is statistically insignificant. The study concluded that the commitment of an employee to organisational goals, missions, and values is not enough to predict his/her stay in the organisation. There are other variables apart from organisational commitment that are predictor of employees intentions to quit. Thus, organisations should look beyond forces in their internal environment, when considering reduction in employees turnover intentions and the actual employees turnover. Abdulkadir, K. and O. Orkun, 2009. The Organizational Commitment of IT Professionals in Private Banks. European and Mediterranean Conference on information system. July 13-14, 2009, Crowne Plaza Hotel, Izmir. Adenguga, R. A., F. T. Adenuga, and K. O. Ayodele, 2013. Organizational Commitment and Turnover Intention among Private Universities’ Employees in Ogun State, Nigeria. Open Journal of Education,  1(2), 31-36. Allen, N. and C. Meyer, 1990. The Measurement and Antecedents of Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment to the Organization. Journal of Occupational  Psychology, 63, 1-18 Angel, H. L. and S. L. Perry, 1981. An Empirical Assessment of Organizational  Communication and Organizational Effectiveness. Administrative Science  Quarterly 26,          1-14. Berndt, T., 1981. Effects of Friendship on Pro-social Intentions and Behavior. Child Development, 52, 636-643. Bester, F., 2012. A Model of Work Identity in Multicultural Work Settings. Unpublished DPhil Thesis, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg. Bothma, C.F.C., and G. Roodt, 2013. The Validation of the Turnover Intention Scale. South Africa Journal of Human Resource Management/SA 11(1), Art. #507, 12 pages. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ Brickman, P., 1987. Commitment. In Wortman, B. & Sorvention, R. (Eds.),Commitment,  Conflict and Caring (p.1-18). Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall. New Jersey, Byrne, Z., 2005. Fairness Reduces the Negative Effects of Organisational Politics on Turnover Intentions, Citizenship Behaviour and Job Performance. Journal of  Business and Psychology, 20, 175–200. Cotton, J., and J. Tuttle, 1986. Employee Turnover: a Meta-Analysis and Review with  Implication for Research. Academy of Management Review, 11(1), 55-70. Dess, G. G. and J. D. Shaw, 2001. Voluntary Turnover, Social Capital, and Organizational     Performance. Academic Management Review, 26, 466-456. Du Plooy, J., and G. Roodt, 2010. Work Engagement, Burnout and Related Constructs as  Predictors of Turnover Intentions. South Africa Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(1), Art. #910, 13 pages. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v36i1.910 Dunham, J., Grude, J. and M. Castenada, 1994. Organizational Commitment: The Utility of an Integrative Definition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 370-380. Faloye, O .D., N. A. Abasilim, and A. A. Agboola, 2013. Job Burnout and Intention to Quit: an Empirical Study of the Nigeria Police. International Journal of Business & Economic Development, 1(3), 25-36. Ferris, K.R., and N. A. Aranya, 1983. A Comparison of two Organisational Commitment  Scales, Personnel Psychology, 36, 87-290. Greyling, J., and K. Stanz, 2010. Turnover of Nursing Employees in a Gauteng Hospital  Group.   South Africa Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(1), Art. #850, 11 pages. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v36i1.850 Griffeth, R.W., Horn, P.W., and S. Gaertner, 2000. A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents and Correlations of Employee Turnover: Update, Moderator Tests, and Research Implications for the Next Millennium. Journal of Management, 26, 463–488. Hendrix, W., Robbins, T., Miller, J., T. Summers, 1998. Effects of Procedural and   Distributive  Justice on Factors Predictive of Turnover. Journal of Social Behavior  and Personality, 13(4) 611–632. Hom, P. W., Katerberg, R., and C. L. Hulin, 1979. Comparative Examination of Three          Approaches to the Prediction of Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 280-290. Hom, P.W., and R.W. Griffeth, 1991. A Structural Equations Modeling Test of a    Turnover  Theory: Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Analysis. Journal of Applied  Psychology 76, 350-366. Horn, P.W., Griffeth, R.W., and L. Sellaro, 1984. The Validity of Mobley’s (1977)    Turnover  Model. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34, 141–174. Intentions: An International Comparative Study. Research Institute for Labour Economics and Labour Law, 82, 1-28. Jaros, S. J. 1997. An Assessment of Meyer and Allen’s 1991 Three-Component Model of  Organization Commitment and Turnover Intentions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 319-337. Jaros, S.J., Jermier, J., Koehler, J., and T. Sincich, 1993. Effects of Continuance, Affective and Moral Commitment on the Withdrawal Process: An Evaluation of Eight  Structural  Equation Models. Academic Management Journal, 36(5), 951–995. Kelman, H.C. 1958. Compliance, Identification, and Internalization: Three Processes of Attitude  Change. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2(1), 51–60. Ko, J., Price, J. L. and C. W. Mueller, 1997. Assessment of Meyer & Allen’s Three  Components  Model of Organisatioinal Commitment in South Korea. Journal of  Applied Psychology, 87 (5), 916-928. Kotzé, K., and G. Roodt, 2005. Factors that Affect the Retention of Managerial and Specialist Staff: An Exploratory Study of an Employee Commitment Model. South Africa Journal of Human Resource Management, 3, 48–55.            Lacity, M.C., Lyer, V.V., and P.S. Rudramuniyaiah, 2008. Turnover Intentions of Indian IS  Professionals. Information Systems Frontiers on Outsourcing, 10, 225–241. Mendes, F., and McGee, G. W. and R. C. Ford, 1987. Two (or More) Dimension of Organizational Commitment: Re-Examination of the Affective and Continuance Commitment  Scales. Journals of  Applied Psychology, 72, 638-642. Meyer, J. and L. Herscovitch, 2001. Commitment in the Workplace: Towards a      General Model. Human Resource Management Review, 11, 299-326. Meyer, J. P. and N. J. Allen, 1984. Testing the ‘Side Bet Theory of  Organizational Commitment: Some Methodological Consideration. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 372-378. Meyer, J. P. and N. J. Allen, 1991 A Three-Component Conceptualization of Organization Commitment. Human Resources Management Review 1, 61-89. Meyer, J., Allen, N.J., and C. A. Smith, 1993. Commitment to Organizations and    Occupations:  Extension and test of three-component Conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 538-51. Meyer, J.P., Paunonen, S.V., Gellatly, I. H., Goffin, R. D., and D. N. Jackson, 1989. Organizational Commitment and Job Performance: It's the Nature of the  Commitment that Counts.   Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 152-56. Mobley W. H., Griffeth R., Hand, H. and B. Meglino, 1979. A Review and Conceptual Analysis of the Employee Turnover Process, Psychological Bulletin 86, 493-522. Mobley, W.H., 1977. Intermediate Linkages in the Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Employee Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 237-240. Mobley, W.H., 1982. Some Unanswered Questions in Turnover and Withdrawal   Research. Academy of Management Review, 7, 111–116. Mowday, R., Porter, L., Steers, R., 1982. Organizational Linkage: The Psychology of Commitment, Absenteeism and Turnover. San Diego, C.A. Academy Press. Mowday, R., Steers, R., and I. Porter, 1979. The Measurement of Organizational Commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14, 244-247. Muliawan, A.D., Green, P.F., and D. A. Robb, 2009. The Turnover Intentions of Information Systems Auditors. International Journal of Accounting Information Systems, 10(3), 117– 136. O’Relly, C. A. and J. Chatman, 1986. Organizational Commitment and    Psychological Attachment: the Effects of Compliance, Identification and  Internalization on Pro-Social Behaviour. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 492-499. O’Relly, C.A. and Chatman, J. and D. F. Caldwell, 1991. People and Organizational Culture: A Profile Comparison Approach to Assessing Person–Organization Fit. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 387-516. Peters, L.H., Bhagat, R.S., and O,Connor, E.J. 1981. An Examination of the Independent  and Joint Contribution of Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction on Employee Intentions to Quit. Group and Organization Studies, 6, 73-82. Porter, L. W., Steers, R.M, Mowday, R. T. and P.V. Boulian, 1974. Organisational Commitment, Job Satisfaction and Turnover among Psychiatric Technician. Journal of Applied  Psychology, 95 (5), 603-609. Somers, M.J. (1995). Organizational Commitment, Turnover, and Absenteeism: An Examination of Direct and Indirect Effect. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16, 49-58. Sousa-Poza, A. and F. Henneberger, 2002. Analyzing Job Mobility with Job Turnover Sousa-Poza, A., 2007. The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Labor Turnover by Gender: An Analysis for Switzerland. The Journal of Socio-Economics 36, 895–913. Staw,  B. M., 1980. The Consequences of Turnover. Journal of  Occupation Behaviour, 1, 253-     273. Steensma, H., Van Breukelen, W., and M. Sturm, 2004. Studying Employee Turnover by Splitting up the usual Comparison Group. Journal of Individual Employment Rights, 11, 211–227. Steers, R. M., 1977. Antecedents and Outcomes of Organizational Commitment.   Administrative       Science Quarterly, 22, 46-56. Stumpf, S. A., and K. Hartman, 1984. Individual Exploration to Organisational Commitment or Withdrawal. Academy of Management Journal, 27, 308-329. Tett R.P., and J. P. Meyer, 1993. Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Turnover  Intention, and Turnover: Path Analyses Based on Meta-Analytical Findings.Personnel Psychology, 46, 259-291. Tumwesigye, G., 2010. The Relationship between Perceived Organisational Support and  Turnover Intentions in a Developing Country: The Mediating Role of Organisational Commitment. African Journal of Business Management, 4(6), 942-      952. Vandenberg, R. R., Self, R. M. and J. H. Seo, 1994. A Critical Examination of International, Identification and Compliance Commitment Measures, Journal of  Management. 20, 123- 140. Whitener, E.M., and P. M. Walz, 1993. Exchange Theory Determinants of Affective and Continuance Commitment and Turnover. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 265-  281. Wiener, Y., and Y. Vardi, 1980. Relationships between Job, Organisation, and Career Commitment and Work Outcomes- an Integrative Approach. Jornal of Organisational   Behaviour and Human Performance, 26, 81-96. Yovuz, M., 2010. The Effect of Teachers Perception of Organizational Justice and Culture on  Organizational Commitment. African Journal of Business Management, 4(5), 695-701. https://ijbed.org/cdn/article_file/i-6_c-62.pdf Dotun Olaleye Faloye Organisational commitment affective commitment continuance commitment normative commitment turnover intentions and paramilitary organisation. 5879 20 32

63 https://ijbed.org/details&cid=63 2014-12-22 This study investigated total quality management practices and quality culture of Saudi Arabian contractors. Improving the quality can be achieved through implementation of total quality management although studies and researches work regarding this improvement is still lacking. A quantitative approach using the survey method was employed. With assistance from the Saudi Arabia Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs, survey questionnaires were distributed to selected contractors in Saudi Arabia. The collected data were analysed using correlation, and multiple regression analyses. The key findings were the confirmation of significant relationships between all total quality management practices and quality culture and a positive relationship between quality management practices and quality culture. Furthermore, total quality management practices were found to be able to explain 68.1% of the variance in quality culture, while quality culture explained 12.5% of the variance in competitiveness. Quality culture was found to only partially mediate the relationship between total quality management practices and competitiveness Abdullah, M. M., Z. A. Ahmad and A. Ismail, 2008. The importance of soft factors for quality improvement: a case study of electrical and electronics firms in Malaysia. International Journal of Business and Management 3(12): 60-69. Ahire, S. L., D. Y. Golhar, M. A. Waller, 1996. Development and Validation of TQM Implementation Constructs. Decision Sciences, 27(27): 23-56. Anderson, J. C., M. Rungtusanatham, R. G. Schroeder, 1994. A Theory of Quality Management Underlying the Deming Management Method. Academy of Management Review, 9(3): 472-509. Bose, R. 2004. Knowledge Management Metrics. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 104(6): 457–468. Coakes, S. J. 2003. SPSS Analysis Without Anguish: Version 11.0 for Windows. 1st Edn., John Wiley and Sons Australia Limited, Milton, ISBN-10: 0470802774, pp: 242. Cohen, J., 1988. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd Edn., Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc Incorporated, Hillsdale, ISBN-10: 0805802835, pp: 567. Das, A., B. Robert, R. J. C. Handfield, & G. Soumen, 2000.  A Contingent View of Quality Management-The Impact of International Competition on Quality. Decision Sciences, 31(3): 649–690. Douglas, T. J. and W.O. Judge, 2001. Total quality management implementation and competitive advantage: The role of structural control and exploration. Aca. Manage. J., 44: 158-158. Ehlers, D. U. 2009. Understanding Quality Culture. Quality Assurance in Education: An International Perspective, 17(4): 343-363. Escrig-Tena, A. B. 2004. TQM as A Competitive Factor: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 21(6): 612-637. Ferguson, H., & L. Clayton, 1988. Quality in the Constructed Project: A Guideline for Owners. Designers and Constructors, Vol. 1. ASCE, New York, 1988. Flores, A. 2008. Global Total Quality Management: An advanced TQM philosophy. [Online] Available: http://www.gtqm.com/, Retrieved on: January 21, 2012. Flynn, B. B., R. G. Schroeder and S. Sakakibara, 1994. A framework for quality management research and an associated instrument. Journal of Operations Management, 11(4): 339-366. Fotopoulos, C. B., & Psomas, E. L. (2009). The Impact of “Soft” and “Hard” TQM Elements on Quality Management Results. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 26(2): 150-163. Gore, E. W. J. 1999. Organizational Culture, TQM, and Business Process Reengineering: An Empirical Comparison. Team Performance Management: An International Journal, 5(5): 164–170. Hackman, J. R., & R. Wageman, 1995. Total Quality Management: Empirical, Conceptual and Practical Issues. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40: 309 - 42. Hair, J. F., R. L. Ta, R. L. Tataham and W. C. Black, 1998. 1st Edn., McGraw-Hill, Homewood, ISBN-10: 978025602848, pp: 244. Hair, J. F., W. C. Black, B. J. Babin, R. E. Anderson and R. L. Tatham, 2006. Multivariate Data Analysis. 6th Hart, D. R. 1994. Quality Handbook for the Architectural, Engineering and Construction Community. Milwaukee, WI, ASQC Quality Press. Henryson, S. 1971. Analysis and using data on test items. In Thorndike R. (Eds.), Educational measurement (2nd ed.) (pp. 124-153). Washington, D.C: America Council on Education. Kanapathy, K. 2008. Critical Factors of Quality Management used in Research Questionnaires: A Review of Literature. Sunway Academic Journal, 19-30. Kanji, G. K., & H. Yui, 1997. Total Quality Culture. Journal of Total Quality Management, 8(6), 417-428. Kaynak, H. (2003). The Relationship between TQM Practices and Their Effects on Firm Performance. Journal of Operations Management, 21(4): 5-35. Love, P. E. D., & H. Li, 2000. Overcoming the problems associated with quality certification.  Construction Management and Economics, 18(2): 139–149. Love, P. E. D., A. Gunasekaran, A. & H. Li, 1998. Improving the competitiveness of manufacturing companies through continuous incremental change. TQM Magazine, 10(3): 177–185. Mellat-Parast, M. and L .A. Digman, 2008. Learning: The interface of quality management and alliances. International Journal of Production Economics, 114: 820-829. Nesan, L. J., & Holt, G. D. 1999. Empowerment in Construction Organisations: The Way Forward for Performance Improvement. Somerset. Research Studies Press, PP. 244. Nunnally, J. C. and I. H. Bernstein, 1994. Psychometric Theory. 3rd Edn., McGraw-Hill, New York, ISBN- 10: 007047849X, pp: 752. Ooi, K. B., N. A. Bakar, V. Arumugam, L. Vellapan, & A. K. Y. Loke, 2007. Does TQM influence employees’ job satisfaction? An empirical case analysis. International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management, 24(1): 62-77. Ooi, K. B., W. C. Cheah, B. Lin, & P. L. Teh, 2010. Total quality management practices and knowledge sharing: an empirical study of Malaysia’s manufacturing organizations. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, DOI: 10.1007/s10490-009-9185-9. Palant, J. 2007. SPSS Survival Manual. (3rd Ed.). Berkshire: Open University Press. Pallant, J. 2001. Spss Survival Manual: A Step-By-Step Guide to Data Analysis Using Spss for Windows. 1st Edn., Open University Press, ISBN-10: 0335208908, pp: 286. Pallant, J. 2003. SPSS survival manual; a step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS. Buckingham: Open University Press. Powell, T. C. 1995. Total Quality Management as Competitive Advantage: A Review and Empirical Study. Strategic Management Journal, 16: 15-37. Rad, A. M. M., 2006. The impact of organizational culture on the successful implementation of total quality management. TQM Mag., 18: 606-625. DOI: 10.1108/09544780610707101 Sekaran, U. 2000. Research methods for business: A skill building approach, (3 edition) New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sekaran, U. 2003. Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building Approach. 4th Edn., Wiley, New York, ISBN-10: 0471384488, pp: 450. Sitkin, S. M., K. M. Sutcliffe, & R. G. Schroeder, 1994.  Distinguishing control from learning in total quality management: A contingency perspective. The Academy of Management Review, 19(3): 537–564. Snell, S. A., & J. J. W. Dean, 1992. Integrated manufacturing and human resources management: A Human capital perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 35(3): 467-504. Tari, J. J. 2005. Components of Successful Total Quality Management. The TQM Magazine, 17(2): 182-194. Westbrook, J. D. 1993. Organizational Culture and Its Relationship to TQM. Industrial Management, 35(1): 1-3. Yong, K. T., & L. S. Pheng, 2008. Organizational Culture and TQM Implementation in Construction Firms in Singapore. Construction Management and Economics, 26, 237-248. Zadry, R. H. 2005. The Integration of Total Quality Management and Theory of Constraints Implementation in Malaysian Automotive Suppliers. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, A Thesis Submitted In Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master of Engineering (Mechanical), PP. 1-211 https://ijbed.org/cdn/article_file/i-6_c-63.pdf Faihan Mosaad Saud Alotaibi Total quality management practices Quality culture Contractors Saudi Arabia 28577 15 0

64 https://ijbed.org/details&cid=64 2014-12-22 This study investigated the relationship between organization justice dimensions namely; procedural justice, distributive justice, informational justice, and interpersonal justice and selected organizational outcomes. Based on the review of the previous literature and studies the research objectives and hypotheses were posed. Organization justice in relation to organizational outcomes was not fully understood particularly in the Eastern countries with a specific focus on Egypt. A questionnaire was constructed, tested and administered to teachers in the International schools in Cairo, Egypt. Results indicate the presence of a relationship between organization justice dimensions and the selected organizational outcomes. Future research should extend to other study sectors within the Egyptian environment as well as expanding the research to include several other organizational outcomes. Adams, J.S., 1965, 'Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, New York: Academic Press, Vol.2, pp.267-299 Alexander, S. &Ruderman, M., 1987, ' The role of procedural and distributive justice in  organizational behavior', Social Justice Research, Vol.1, pp.177-198 Aquino, K., 1995,’ Relationships among pay inequity, perceptions of procedural justice, and organizational citizenship’, Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, Vol. 8,          pp.21-33 Bies, R.J., 2001, ' Interactional (in)justice: the scared and the profance', in Greenberg,J., Cropanzano,R. (Eds), Advances in Organizational Justice, Stanford UniversityPress, Palo Alto, CA, pp.85-108 Bies, R.J., 2005, ' Are procedural justice and interactional justice conceptually distinct?', in  Greenberg, J. and Colquitt, J.A (Eds), Handbook of Organizational Justice, Erlbaum, Mahwah,  NJ, pp.85-112 Bies, R. J., &Moag, J. S., 1986,' Interactional justice: Communication criteria of fairness',  In R. J.Lewicki, B. H. Sheppard, & M. Z. Bazerman (Eds.), Research onnegotiations in organizations, pp. 43–55, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Chou,R.I.A, 2009, ' Organizational justice and turnover intention: a study of direct care workers  in assisted living facilities for older adults in the United States ', Social Development Issues, Vol.31, pp. 69-85 Clay-Warner, J., Reynolds, J. and Roman, P., 2005, ' Organization justice and job satisfaction: a set of three competing models', Social Justice Research, Vol.18, pp.391-409 Cohen-Charash, Y., & Spector, P. E., 2001, 'The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis',  Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol.86,pp. 278–321. Colquitt, J.A. 2001, ' On the dimensionality of organizational justice: A construct Validation of a     measure', Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.86, pp.386-400 Colquitt, J.A., Conlon,D.E., Wesson,M.L., Porter,C.O.L.H, & Ng,K.Y.,2001,'Justice at the   millennium: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of organizational justice', Journal of       Applied Psychology, Vol.86,pp.425-445 Cropanzano, R., &Folger, R., 1991, ' Procedural justice and worker motivation, In R.M.Steers&L.W. Porter (Eds.), Motivation and worker behavior, New York: McGraw-Hill,    Vol.5, pp.131-143. Cropanzano,R., Greenberg,J., 1997, ' Progress in organizational justice: tunneling through the maze', in Cooper C.L. and Robertson, I.T. (Eds), International Review of Industrial And Organizational Psychology, Wiley, New York, NY, pp. 317-372 Cropanzano, R., &Prehar, C. A., 1999, ‘Using social exchange theory to distinguish procedural       from interactional justice’, Presented at the 14th Annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Atlanta, GA Dailey,R.C., & Kirk, D.J., 1992, ' Distributive and procedural justice as antecedents of job  dissatisfaction and intent to turnover', Human Relations, Vol.45, pp.305-317 Dirks,K.T., &Ferrin,D.L., 2002, 'Trust in leadership: Meta-analytic findings and implications for  research and practice', Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.87,pp.611-628 Folger, R., &Cropanzano,R., 1998, ' Organization Justice and Human Resources Management', Thousand Oaks, London: Sage Publications Folger, R., &Konovsky,M.A., 1989,' Effects of procedural and distributive justice on reactions to pay raise decisions', Academy of Management Journal, Vol.32, no.1, pp.115-130 Gopanzo, R.E. &Stein, J.H., 2009, ' Organizational Justice and behavioural Ethics: promises; prospects', Business Ethics Quarterly, Vol.19, pp.193-233 Elovainio M, Van den Bos K, Linna A., 2005, 'Combined effects of uncertainty and organizational justice on employee health: Testing the uncertainty model of fairness judgments among Finnish public sector employees. Social Science and Medicine, Vol.61,no.12, pp.2501-2512 Farh,J.L.,Podsakoff,P.M. and Organ,D.W. , 1990,' Accounting for organizational citizenship  behavior: leader fairness and task scope versus satisfaction', Journal of Management, Vol.16, no. 4, pp. 705-721 Folger, R. and Skarlicki, D. P.,(1999), ‘Unfairness and resistance to change: hardship as  mistreatment’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol.12, pp.35–50. Greenberg, J., 1990, ' Organizational justice: yesterday, today, and tomorrow', Journal of Management, Vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 399–432. Greeberg, J., 1990b, 'Organization Justice: Yesterday, today and tomorrow, Journal of Management', Vol.16, pp.399-432 Greenberg, J., 1993, ' The social side of fairness: interpersonal and informational categories of organizational justice', in Cropanzano, R. (Ed.), Justice in the Workplace: Approaching Fairness in Human Resource Management, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp.79-103 Homans, G.C., 1961, Social behavior: Its elementary forms. New York: Hharcourt Brace Jones, F., 1998, 'Pay procedures and voluntary turnover: does procedural justice matter?’ , Psychological Reports, Vol.83, pp. 475-482 Judge, T.A., Colquitt, J.A., 2004,' Organizational justice and stress: The mediating role of work-      family conflict', Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.89, no.3, pp.395-404 Konovsky, M.A., Cropanzano, R., 1991, ' Perceived fairness of employee drug testing as   predictor of employee attitudes and job performance', Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.76, pp.698-707 Konovsky,M.A.,& Pugh, S.D.,1994, 'Citizenship behavior and social exchange', Academy of Management Journal, Vol.37,pp.656-669 Korsgaard, M. A., & Roberson, L., 1995,’ Procedural justice in performance evaluation: The role of instrumental and non-instrumental voice in performance appraisal discussion’, Journal of Management, Vol. 21, pp. 657-669 Kramer,R., Tyler,T., 1996, 'Whither trust, in Tyler, T. and Kramer, R.(Eds), Trust in Organizations: Frontiers of Thory and Research Sage, Thousand Oaks, C.A', pp.1-15 Leventhal, G. S., 1980, ' What should be done with equity theory? New approaches to the study of fairness in social relationships' In K. Gergen, M. Greenberg, & R. Willis (Eds.), Social exchange: Advances in theory and research (pp. 27-55). New York: Plenum. Lind, E. A., Kulik, C., Ambrose, M., & de Vera Park, M., 1993,’ Individual and corporate dispute    resolution: Using procedural fairness as a decision heuristic’, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol.38, pp. 224-251 Lind, E. A., & Tyler, T. R. , 1988, ' The social psychology of procedural justice',  New York: Plenum. Masterson, S. S., Lewis, K., Goldman, B. M., & Taylor, M. S., 2000),’ Integrating justice and social    exchange: The differing effects of fair procedures and treatment on work relationships’, Academy of Management Journal, Vol.43,pp. 738-748. Mayer,R.C.&Davis,J.H., 1999,'The effect of the performance appraisal system on trust for management: a field quasi-experiment', Journal of Applied Psychology,Vol.84, no.1,  pp.123-136 McFarlin, D. B., & Sweeney, P. D. (1992),’ Distributive and procedural justice as predictors of satisfaction with personal and organizational outcomes’,Academy of Management     Journal, Vol.35 No.3, 626-637 Moorman, R.H., 1991, ' Relationship between organizational justice and organizational  citizenship behaviors: Do fairness perceptions influence employee citizenship?, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.76, pp.845-855 Mowday,R., 1991, 'Equity theory predictions of behavior in organizations', in Steers, R. and Porter, L. (Eds), Motivation and Work Behavior, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York,NY,pp. 111-131 Moye, N. A., Masterson, S. S., &Bartol, K. M., 1997,’ Differentiating antecedents and  consequences of procedural and interactional justice: Empirical evidence in support of   separate constructs’, Presented at the 56th Annual Meeting of the National Academy of  Management,Boston, MA. Parker,C.P., Baltes,B.B. & Christiansen, N.D., 1997, ' Support for affirmative action, justice  perceptions, and work attitudes: A study of gender and racial –ethnic group differences. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.83, pp.376-389 Pierce,J.L., Gardner,D.G., 2002, ' Management and Organizational Behavior: An Integrated Perspective, South-Western, Cincinnati,OH Pillai, R., Schriesheim, C.A. and Williams, E.S. (1999), “Fairness perceptions and trust as mediators for transformational and transactional leadership: a two-sample study”, Journalof Management, Vol. 25 No. 6, pp. 897-933. Podsakoff, P.M., Mackenzie, S., Lee, J. and Podsakoff, N., 2003,' Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies',  Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 88, pp. 879-903 Podsakoff, P.M., Mackenzie, S.B. and Podsakoff, N.P., 2012,' Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it', Annual Review of Psychology, Vol.36, pp.539-569 Shapiro,D.L., Brett,J.M., 1993,'Comparing three processes underlying judgements of procedural  justice: A field of study of mediation and arbitration', Journal of Personality and Social       Psychology, Vol.65, pp.1167-1177 Skarlicki,D.P., Lathman, G.P., 1996,' Increasing citizenship behavior within a labor union: A test  of organizational justice theory, Journal of Applied Psychology', Vol.2, pp.161-169 Sweeny, P.D., &McFarlin, D.B., 1993, ' Workers evaluations of the "Ends" and the "Means": An examination of the four models of distributive and procedural justice', Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol.55, pp.22-40 Thau S., Aquino K., and Wittek R., (2007), ‘An extension of uncertainty management theory to the self: The relationship between justice, social comparison orientation, and antisocial work behaviors’,Journal of Applied Psychology,Vol.92 No.1,pp. 250–258 Tyler, T.R. (1999), “Why people cooperate with organizations: an identity-based perspective”, Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 21, pp. 201-46. Tyler, T. R., &DeGoey, P., 1996, ' Trust in organizational authorities: The influence of motive attributions on willingness to accept decisions', In R. Kramer, & T. R. Tyler (Eds.), Trust   in organizations: Frontiers of theory andresearch , pp. 331–356,  Thousand Oaks, CA:   Sage. Tyler, T. R., DeGoey, P., & Smith, H. J., 1996, ' Understanding why the justice of group procedures matters: A test of the psychological dynamics of the group-value model', Journalof Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 70, pp. 913–930. Tzafir, S., Simon L., 2004, 'Trust Me: A scale for measuring manager-employee trust', Management Research: The Journal of Iberoamerican Academy of Management, Vol.2, no.2, pp.115-132 Witt, A.L., & Broach, D., 1993,' Exchange ideology as a moderator of the procedural justice- satisfaction relationship', Journal of Social Psychology, Vol.133, pp.97-103 https://ijbed.org/cdn/article_file/i-6_c-64.pdf Ghadeer Mohamed Badr ElDinAboul-Ela Organization justice leader evaluation outcome satisfaction rule compliance employee's trust 6074 5 0

65 https://ijbed.org/details&cid=65 2014-12-22 The main purpose of the study is to analyze the contribution of Saudi woman in economic development of the country. This report develops an understanding of women contributions towards economic development. The method used to analyze the data was Pearson correlation. Through correlation we can determine the relationship between the variables. The study was a quantitative study. The data for five years was taken. Hypotheses development proceeded by focusing on labor work force participation, literacy rate of adult females and GDP rate within Saudi Arabia. Analysis was done on the results and the findings confirmed that there is a significant relationship between the variables. This study was of exploratory nature, it is recommended that this research be expanded to a statistically valid base within Saudi Arabia and then expand the study to additional countries. The findings showed that there was a high significant relationship between women labor work force participation and GDP. Whereas, there was moderate significant relationship between labor work force and literacy rate. Hence, there is a positive relationship between women contribution and economic development. The research is conducted within the context of Saudi Arabia and has certain limitation with further directions of conducting research in related field to get more accurate results AlMunajjed, M. (2009). Women’s Education in Saudi Arabia The Way Forward. Booz & Company. Pp. 1-23. Data retrieved from http://www.ideationcenter.com/media/file/Womens_Education_in_SaudiArabia_Advance_Look_FINALv9.pdf Asmari, M. G.H. (2008). Saudi Labor Force: Challenges and Ambitions. Sociology Department, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Pp. 1-41. Data retrieved from www.kau.edu.sa/Files/320/Researches/51275_21466.pdf Fatany, S. (2007). Saudi Women Towards A New Era. Ghalnaa Publications. Pp. 11-83. Data retrieved from http://d1.islamhouse.com/data/en/ih_books/single/en_Women_saudi_Towards_A_New_Era.pdf Jiffry, F. (2014). Unemployment rate among Saudi women hits 34%. Arab News. Pp. 1. Data retrieved from http://www.arabnews.com/news/560096 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (2012). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency-Annual Reports. The latest economic developments. Research and Statistic Departments. Pp. 8-180. Data retrieved from http://www.sama.gov.sa/sites/samaen/ReportsStatistics/ReportsStatisticsLib/5600_R_Annual_En_48_2013_02_19.pdf McKenna, D. M. (2009). Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. University of Maryland University College (UMUC). Pp. 2-13. Data retrieved from  http://static.wamda.com/web/uploads/resources/UMUC_WP-2009-02.pdf Paxson, C & Mammen, k. (2000). Women's Work and Economic Development. The Journal of Economic Perspectives. Pp. 141-164. Data retrieved from  http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ321/orazem/mammon-development.pdf Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia. (2012). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Political, Social and Economic Initiatives. Pp. 4-8. Data retrieved from  http://www.saudiembassy.net/files/PDF/Reports/Development_Report.pdf Saidi, N. H. (2013). The Real Arab Spring Is About Women and Economic Development. The Huffington Post. Pp.1. Data retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dr-nasser-h-saidi/the-real-arab-spring-is-a_b_4206716.html Saleh, S. A. (2007). The participation of women in Saudi Arabia’s economy: Obstacles and prospects. Durham University. Pp. 21-250. Data retrieved from  http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2597/1/2597_608.pdf?UkUDh:CyT Sampson, D. A. (2004). Definition of Economic Development. U.S. Department of Commerce. Pp. 1-2. Data retrieved from http://cardi.cornell.edu/cals/devsoc/outreach/cardi/calendar-events/upload/DefinitionsEconomicDevelopment.pdf Saudi Arabia: Selected Issues IMF Country Report No. 13/230, July 2013 Data retrieved from http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2013/cr13230.pdf The World Bank, official website. (2014). GDP growth (annual %). Pp. 1. Data retrieved from  http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG The World Bank, official website. (2014). Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+). Pp. 1. Data retrieved from  http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS World Bank. (2001). What is empowerment? Pp. 1-14. Data retrieved from  http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEMPOWERMENT/Resources/486312-1095094954594/draft2.pdf Zahidi, S. (2005). Women’s Empowerment: Measuring the Global Gender Gap. World Economic Forum. Pp. 3-18. Data retrieved from http://www.weforum.org/pdf/Global_Competitiveness_Reports/Reports/gender_gap.pdf https://ijbed.org/cdn/article_file/i-6_c-65.pdf Haga Elimam Lobna Abdullah Nisreen Al-Banawi Abla Bokhari Women contribution Economic development Labor work force participation Education and GDP 5290 6 0

66 https://ijbed.org/details&cid=66 2014-12-22 Saudi Arabia has witnessed enormous socio-economic changes for the last two decades. Due to this, the standard living of most Saudi people has been improved noticeably. Accordingly, that affects on the consumption expenditure of the Saudi family particularly on the children which has been increased substantially. However, no studies with respect to cost of children have yet been undertaken in Saudi Arabia. This study is to estimate the proportion of expenditure on children, to families income in Saudi Arabia by estimating the cost of children in Saudi Arabia; using Jeddah as a case study. In the study, the cost of children is taken to be money expenditure that is the amount that parents actually spent on their children. The study involves a sample of (1500) respondents from the city of Jeddah. Also, explores attitudes and opinions towards certain topics related to cost of children and the family. The study highlights that cost of children rise proportionately to family income, children age, and their numbers Al-Ghamdi, Mohammed (1991), Socio-Economic Change in Family and Fertility in Saudi Arabia, PhD, University of Wales. Al-Mtairi, Naief M. (1985), Development of Oil and Societal Change in Saudi Arabia, Unpublished MA Thesis, North Texas State University, USA. Banks, James and Johnson, P. (1993), Children and Household Living Standards, Oxford: Parchment Ltd. (January). Berti, A.E .and Bombi, A.S. (1988), The Child’s Construction of Economics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Blackorby, Charles and Donaldson, D. (1996), “Measuring the Cost of Children: A Theoretical Framework”, in: The Measurement of Household Welfare, Blundell, R.W., Preston, Ian and Ian Walker  (eds.), Cambridge , Cambridge University Press, 2nd Edition, pp. 51-96. Bradbury, Bruce (1994), Measuring the Cost of Children, Australian Economic Papers, Vol. 33, Issue. 62, pp. 120-138. Browning, Martin (1992), “Children and Household Economic Behavior”, Journal of   Economic Literature, Vol.30, No.3, pp 1434-1475. Connifee, D. (1992), “The Non-Constancy of Equivalence Scales”, Review of Income and Wealth, Vol. 4, pp. 429- 43. Deaton, A. (1981), “Theoretical and Empirical Approaches to Consumer Demand under Rationing”, in: Essays in the Theory and Measurement of Consumer Behavior, Deaton, A. (ed.), New York, Cambridge University Press, New York. Deaton, Angus and Muellbauer, J. (1986), “On Measuring Child Costs: With Applications to Poor Countries”, The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 94, Iss.4, pp 720-744. Espenshade, Thomas (1984), Investing in Children: New Estimates of Parental Expenditure, Washington: Urban Institute Press, Washington, D.C. Farahat, Ahmed (1986), Cost of Children and its Differentials: A Study of An Industrial Society of Egypt, PhD Thesis; Cairo University. Gronau, Reuben (1988), “Consumption Technology and the Interfamily Distribution of Resources: Adult Equivalence Scales Reexamined”, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 96, No. 6, pp. 1183-1205. Harding, Ann, Percival, R. and McDonald, P. (1999), Estimates of the Costs of Children in Australian Families, 1993-94, Policy Research Paper No. 3 (March), The National Centre for Social and Economic Modelling (NATSEM), University of Canberra. Hirsch, D., Sutton, L and Beckhelling, J. (2012), “The cost of a child in twenty-first century”, Child Poverty Action Group, September 2012. Joshi, Heather (1990), “The Cash Opportunity Costs of Child Bearing: An Approach to Estimation Using British Data”, Population Studies, Vol.44, No.1, pp.41-60. Lazear, Edward and Michael, R. (1988), Allocation of Income within the Household, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press. Lovering, Kerry (1998), Costs of Child in Australia, Working Paper No.8; Institute of Family Studies, Melbourne. Lapovsky, Lucie Taubenblatt (1981), the Cost of Children in Single-Parent   Household, PhD Thesis, University of Maryland. Lyssiotov, P. (1997), “Comparison of Alternative Tax and Transfer Treatment of Children Using Adult Equivalent Scales”, Review of Income and Wealth, Vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 105 - 17. McDonald, Peter (1990), “Cost of Children: A Review of Methods and Results”, Family Matters, No.27, pp. 19-22. Miller, D. (1987), Material Culture and Mass Consumption, Blackwell, Oxford. Murthi, M. (1994), “Engel Equivalence Scales in Sri Lanka: Exactness, Specification, Measurement Error”, in: The Measurement of Household Welfare, Blundell, R., Preston, I. and Walker, I. (eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.164-191. Nipa, Basu (1995), “Measurement of the Cost of Children: A theoretical and Empirical Analysis”, PhD Dissertation, University of New York at Albany. Pahl, J.  (1989), Money and Marriage, Macmillan, London. Percival, Richard and Harding, A. (2000), the Public and Private Costs of Children in Australia (1993-1994), Discussion Paper No. 48 (April), National Center for Social and Economic Modeling (NATSEM), University of Canberra. Sarlo, Christoper A. (2013), the cost of Raising Children, Fraser Institute. Saunders, P. (1999), “Budget Standards and the Cost of Children”, Family Matters, No. 53, winter, pp.62-70. Saudi Arabia Monetary Agency (SAMA), (2012), Annual Report (48th Issue), Najed Printers, Riyadh. Valenzuela, M.R. (1999), “Cost of Children in Australian Households”, Family Matters, Melbourne Institute, No.53, pp.71-76. Van der, Gaag (1981), On Measuring the Cost of Children, Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin, Madison, mimeograph. Van Praag, Bernard and Warnaar, M.F. (1997), “The Cost of Children and the Use of Demographic Variables in Consumer Demand”, in: Handbook of Population and Family Economics, Zweig, Rosen and Stark, M.R. (eds.), Elsevier Science, North – Holland , Amsterdam. Whiteford, Pete (1986), The Cost of Kids, Social Welfare Research Centre Reprint, No. 40, Social Policy Research Center, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Williams, R., Price, D. and Venohr, J. (1993), Economic Basis for Updated Child Support Scheduled – State of North Carolina, Report Prepared for the Office of Courts, North Carolina Supreme Court, State of North Carolina. World Bank (2010), World Development Report 2010, New York: Oxford University Press https://ijbed.org/cdn/article_file/i-6_c-66.pdf Nisreen Al-Banawi Saudi Arabia family income children's expenditure childrens impact Saudi families expenditure Engels curve model 5339 9 0

67 https://ijbed.org/details&cid=67 2014-12-22 Information and communication technology (ICT) tools are regarded as imperative not only for enabling the economy to grow at a healthy rate, but also for elevating the socioeconomic conditions and standards of the society. In concurrence with the widespread diffusion of ICT, lies the phenomenon called digital divide – a complex issue pertaining to unequal access, use and applications of ICT among countries and peoples. This paper attempts to measure the contribution of conventional factors such as affordability, infrastructure, trade openness and urbanization, with added emphasis on the role of financial development in explaining cross-country development of ICT among Southeast Asian countries. Using panel data for 4 countries for the period 1994 – 2011, findings of this study revealed that GDP is the most significant determinant in explaining digital divide – consistent with findings from previous research efforts. Financial development also appear significant in most models adopted in all three ICT tools, implying the need for these countries to improve their financial markets to avoid falling further behind in promoting a digitally inclusive society Asia-Pacific Economic Corporation. (2002). The New APEC Economy: Innovations, Digital Divide and Policy, 2002. Report, Economic Committee (EC). Billon, M., Lera-Lopez, F., & Marco, R. (2010). Differences in Digitalization Levels: A Multivariate Analysis Studying the Global Digital Divide. Review of World Economics. Chinn, M. D., & Fairlie, R. W. (2004). The Determinants of the Global Digital Divide: A Cross-Country Analysis of Computer and Internet Penetration. Chinn, M. D., & Fairlie, R. W. (2007). The determinants of the global digital divide: a cross-country analysis of computer and internet penetration. Oxford Economic Papers-new Series. Cooper, R., & John, A. (1988). Coordinating Coordination Failures in Keynesian Models. Quarterly Journal of Economics CIII, 3, 441-463. Dasgupta, S., Lall, S., & Wheeler, D. (2005). Policy Reform, Economic Growth and the Digital Divide. Oxford Development Studies, 33(2), 229-243. Dedrick, J., & Kraemer, K. L. (1998). Asia's computer challenge: Threat or Opportunity for the United States and The World. New York: Oxford University Press. Guillen, M. F., & Suarez, S. L. (2005). Explaining the Global Digital Divide: Economic, Political and Sociological Drivers of Cross-National Internet Use. Social Forces, 84(2), 681-708. Hargittai, E. (1999). Weaving the Western Web: Explaining Differences in Internet Connectivity Among OECD Countries. Telecommunications Policy. Hassan, M. K. (2003). FDI, Information Technology and Economic Growth in the MENA Region. ITU (2003). World Telecommunication/ICT Development Report. International Telecommunication Union. Geneva. Kiiski, S., & Pohjola, M. (2002). Cross-country diffusion of the Internet. Information Economics and Policy, 14(2), 297-310. Kraemer, K. L., Ganley, D., & Dewan, S. (2005). Across the Digital Divide: A Cross-Country Multi-Technology Analysis of the Determinants of IT Penetration. Mordi, C. N. (2010). The Link Between the Financial (Banking) Sector and The Real Economy. Economic and Financial Review, 48/4. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2001. Understanding the Digital Divide. Paris: OECD. Ono, H. (2005). Digital Inequality in East Asia: Evidence from Japan, South Korea and Singapore. Asian Economic Papers. Quibria, M. G., Ahmed, S. N., Tschang, T., & Reyes-Macasaquit, M. (2003). Digital Divide: Determinants and Policies with Special Reference to Asia. Journal of Asian Economics, 13(6), 811-825. Saint-Paul, G. (1992). Technological Choice, Financial Markets and Economic Development. European Economic Review. Shchetinin, O., & Baptiste, M. (2008). How to Overcome the Digital Divide? The Determinants of Internet Diffusion. Srinuan, C., Rohman, I. K., Srinuan, P., & Bohlin, E. (2009). Digital Divide in ASEAN Countries: How wide is the gap and what is the role of independent regulator? Wong, P. K. (2002). ICT Production and Diffusion in Asia Digital Dividends or Digital Divide? Information Economics and Policy. Yartey, C. A. (2008). Financial Development, The Structure of Capital Markets, and The Global Digital Divide. Information Economics and Policy https://ijbed.org/cdn/article_file/i-6_c-67.pdf Debbra Toria Nipo Imbarine Bujang ICT digital divide financial development 5606 12 0

68 https://ijbed.org/details&cid=68 2014-12-22 Sustainable expansion in any nation depends on the presence of an energetic workforce. The Schultz model indicates that national income is sum total of human capital and physical capital. Given that the national income of Saudi Arabia is disproportionately largely derived from oil wealth rather than human resources, the government has embarked on providing appropriate education to its young people. Funding for education has increased over the years. Primary, secondary, and tertiary institutions have been receiving fairly adequate funding to offer standard education to learners. Moreover, the government has implemented focused programs, such as KASP to and Hafiz to circumvent some of the shortcomings in the educational sector. In spite of the governments efforts, the lack of the right curriculum to ensure performance in the labor force, job discrimination among Saudis, lack of ICT infrastructure, and reluctance of women to join the workforce alongside men hinder the development of a vibrant human capital. Education of the young population is an invaluable investment in the realm of the Arab nation, not only to ensure perpetuation of a strong economy after the end of the oil age, but also to supplement the income that is generated from oil exports at the present Ageli, M. M. (2013). Does education expenditure promote economic growth in Saudi Arabia? An econometric analysis. International Journal of Social Science Research, 1(1), 1-10. Alfawaz, A., Hilal, K., & Alghannam, Z. (2014). Would the educational programs help in solving Saudi Arabia’s employment challenges? International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences, 3(1), 24-39. Al-Maliki, S. Q. A. (2013). Information and communication technology (ICT) investment in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Assessing strengths and           weaknesses. Journal of Organizational Knowledge Management, 2013, 1-15. Almobaireek, W. N. & Manolova, T. S. (2012). Entrepreneurial Intentions among Saudi University Students: The Role of Motivations and Start-Up Problems. African Journal of Business Management, 6(11), pp. 4029-4040 AlMunajjed, M. (2009). Women’s Education in Saudi Arabia: The Way Forward. USA: Booz & Company Inc. Alquraini, T. (2010). Special education in Saudi Arabia: challenges, perspectives, future possibilities. International Journal of Special Education, 25 (3), 139-147. Baqutayan, S. M. S. (2011). Issues in the implementation of science and technology education in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 1(5), 165-170. Corneo, G. (2011). Stakeholding as a New Development Strategy for Saudi Arabia. Review of Middle East Economics and Finance, 7 (1), 1-19. Joharji, G., A. & Starr, M., A. (2010).  Fiscal policy and growth in Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from https://www.american.edu/cas/economics/pdf/upload/2010-7.pdf Issa, A. T. E. & Siddiek, A. G. (2012). Higher education in the Arab world & challenges of labor market. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(9), 146-151. Khatib, A. M. (2011). The effect of the increase in oil revenue on government expenditures on education in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Business Studies Quarterly, 3(2), 74-76. Liton, H. A. (2012). Developing EFL teaching and learning practices in Saudi colleges: a review. International Journal of Instruction, 5(2), 129-152. Murphy, C. (2011). Saudi Arabia’s youth and the kingdom’s future. Middle East Program Occasional Paper Series, 2, 1-10. Qureshi, R. (2014). Human resources development and the status of women labor force in Saudi Arabia: a critical analysis. International Journal of Current Research and Academic Review, 2(4), 144-155. Ramady, Mohamed. (2013). Gulf unemployment and government policies: prospects for the Saudi labor quota or Nitaqat system. International Journal of Economics and Business Research, 5 (4), 1-23. Rizvi, L. J. (2014). Pragmatic pathways -change is in the air. “Preparing youth for a new  alternative economy in the GCC region.” Middle East Journal of Business, 9(2) 2014, 9-16. Tayeh, S. N. A. & Mustafa, M. H. (2011). Toward empowering the labor Saudization of tourism sector in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(3), 80-84. Wiseman, A. W., Sadaawi, A., & Alromi, N. H. (2008). Educational Indicators and National Development in Saudi Arabia. IEA International Research Conference. Taiwan: Taipei City. U.S.-Saudi Arabian Business Council. (2014). Saudi Arabia’s 2014 budget emphasizes long-term development. Retrieved from  http://www.ussabc.org/custom/news/details.cfm?id=1541#.U6sgnUD_S1s https://ijbed.org/cdn/article_file/i-6_c-68.pdf Nadia Yusuf Saudi Arabia investing young people education economy 6271 10 0